Should We be Afraid of AI-based Manipulation? Consumer Protection in the Shadow of Artificial Intelligence

Orsolya Fekete

doi:10.46282/bpf.2025.21

Authors

Orsolya Fekete

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.46282/bpf.2025.21

Keywords:

artificial intelligence, advertisements, consumer protection, average consumer, digital skills

Abstract

Artificial intelligence (hereinafter referred to as AI) tools by no means share uniform characteristics, yet their classification and grouping are not only important from a theoretical perspective. In the case of AI systems based on autonomous decision-making, the significance of potential risks, data protection and ethical issues increases exponentially.
It can be taken as evidence that, due to the informational asymmetry between consumers and businesses, consumers require protection. The caveat emptor principle, derived from Roman law and placing the focus on consumer responsibility, has not been applicable for a long time. The Hungarian consumer protection authorities – in line with the practice of the Court of Justice of the European Union – place focus on rational, reasonably-acting consumers. However, consumers with these attributes are not tasked with uncovering or investigating the truthfulness of the information conveyed to them – in advertisements. The aim of the study is to examine how the use of AI may transform businesses’ commercial practices and whether its application may pose a potentially greater risk to consumers. Moreover, must consumers of the modern era simultaneously acquire new knowledge in order to meet the requirements imposed on average consumers?

References

1. ACEMOGLU, Daron: The simple macroeconomics of AI. In: Economic Policy, vol. 40, issue 121 (2025), p. 13–https://doi.org/10.1093/epolic/eiae042 (accessed Sept. 26,2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/epolic/eiae042

2. CHAUDHRY, Muhammad Ali- KAZIM, Emre: Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIEd): a high-level academic and industry note 2021. AI Ethics, vol 2. (2022), p. 157–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-021-00074-z (accessed Sept. 26,2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-021-00074-z

3. DÁNIEL, Eszteri: A gépek adatalapú tanításának megfeleltetése a GDPR egyes előírásainak. In: TÖRÖK, Bernát – ZŐDI, Zsolt (szerk.): A mesterséges intelligencia szabályozási kihívásai. Tanulmányok a mesterséges intelligencia és a jog határterületeiről (Aligning the data-driven training of machines with certain provisions of the GDPR. In: TÖRÖK, Bernát –ZŐDI, Zsolt (eds): The regulatory challenges of artificial intelligence. Studies on the borderlands of artificial intelligence and law) Ludovika Egyetemi Kiadó, Budapest, 2021 p. 207-208. ISBN 978-963-531-483-6.

4. FAZEKAS, Judit: A fogyasztóvédelmi jog digitális transzformációjának újabb eredményei - avagy az áruk, a digitális tartalmak és a digitális szolgáltatások hibás teljesítéséről szóló irányelvek és transzpozíciójuk. (Further results of the digital transformation of consumer protection law – that is, the directives on defective performance of goods, digital content and digital services and their transposition.) In Jog-Állam-Politika, no.2. (2022), Kukorelli special issue, p. 123

5. FEKETE, Orsolya: A felügyeleti szervek tevékenysége Magyarországon a fogyasztóvédelem egyes területein – kitekintéssel a rendszerszintű problémák megoldási lehetőségeire. (The activities of supervisory bodies in Hungary in some areas of consumer protection – with an outlook on the possibilities solving the systemic level problems.) PhD dissertation. University of Szeged (SZTE), Doctoral School of Law, https://doktori.bibl.u-szeged.hu/id/eprint/733/1/ÉRTEKEZÉS_Fekete_Orsolya.pdf (accessed Sept. 26,2025).

6. HÁMORI, Balázs: Kísérletek és kilátások. Daniel Kahneman. (Experiments and prospects. Daniel Kahneman.) In: Közgazdasági Szemle. year 50, no.9 (2003) p. 782.

7. JAKAB, Éva: Forum Romanum. Jogesetek és szerződési minták római jogból. (Forum Romanum. Case law and contract templates from Roman law.) Generál Print Nyomda Kft., Szeged, 2003 p. 145. ISBN 9630093472.

8. MCCARTHY, John: What is artificial intelligence? 12 November 2007, pp. 2-3 https://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/whatisai.pdf (accessed Sept. 26,2025).

9. PATYI, András – POLLÁK, Kitti – FEKETE, Orsolya: A mesterséges intelligencia alkalmazásának egyes adatvédelmi kihívásai a közigazgatási hatósági eljárásokban. (Certain data protection challenges of applying artificial intelligence in administrative procedures.) In: Jog-Állam-Politika, no.2. (2025), p. 7-20. https://doi.org/10.58528/JAP.2025.17-2.7 (accessed Sept. 26,2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.58528/JAP.2025.17-2.7

10. PATYI, András – POLLÁK, Kitti – FEKETE, Orsolya: The application of artificial intelligence: basic questions and dilemmas with a particular regard to administrative procedures. https://dspace.uniba.sk/bitstream/handle/123456789/225/BPF_2024_pdv.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y#page=68 (accessed Sept. 26,2025).

11. PUSZTAHELYI, Réka: Az „érzelmes MI” felhasználása az online marketing világában. in: TÖRÖK, Bernát – ZŐDI, Zsolt (szerk.): A mesterséges intelligencia szabályozási kihívásai. Tanulmányok a mesterséges intelligencia és a jog határterületeiről (The use of “emotional AI” in the world of online marketing. in: TÖRÖK, Bernát – ZŐDI, Zsolt (eds): The regulatory challenges of artificial intelligence. Studies on the borderlands of artificial intelligence and law), Ludovika Egyetemi Kiadó, Budapest, 2021 p. 439-464. ISBN 978-963-531-483-6.

12. RICHARDS, Isabel: ‘Hypernudging’: a threat to moral autonomy? In: AI and Ethics, Volume 5, (2025), 1121–1131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-024-00449-y (accessed Sept. 26,2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43681-024-00449-y

13. SCHERER, Matthew U.: Regulating artificial intelligence systems: risks, challenges, competencies, and strategies. In: Harvard Journal of Law &Technology, vol. 29, no. 2 Spring (2016), p. 359. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2609777

14. SZABÓ, Dániel: Mi és MI - A mesterséges intelligencia szerepe az iskolákban. (We and AI – The role of artificial intelligence in schools.) In: Új köznevelés, no. 9-10 (2024) p. 42-43. https://folyoiratok.oh.gov.hu/uj-kozneveles/mi-es-mi-a-mesterseges-intelligencia-szerepe-az-iskolakban (accessed Sept. 26,2025).

15. SZABÓ, Lívia: A fogyasztói szerződések szerződésszerűsége a digitális transzformáció tükrében - I. rész. (The conformity of consumer contracts in the light of digital transformation - Part I) In: Jog-Állam-Politika, no.2. (2025), p. 190-192., https://doi.org/10.58528/JAP.2025.17-2.185 (accessed Sept. 26,2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.58528/JAP.2025.17-2.185

16. THALER, Richard H.- SUNSTEIN, Cass R.: Improving decisions about health, wealth and hapiness, New-Haven-London, Yale University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-300-12223-7.

17. TÓTH, András: A mesterséges intelligencia szabályozásának paradoxonja és egyes jogi vonatkozásainak alapvető kérdései. (The paradox of the regulation of artificial intelligence and the fundamental questions of some of its legal aspects.) In: Infokommunikáció és jog. no.2. (2019), p. 4.

18. TURING, Alan Mathison: Computing Machinery and Intelligence. In: Mind, New Series, vol. 59, no. 236, Oct (1950), p. 433–460. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433

19. YEUNG, Karen: Big data as a mode of regulation by design. In: Information, Communication &Society, The Social Power of Algorithms. Volume 20, issue 1 (2017) p. 118-136. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2016.1186713

20. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions Artificial intelligence for Europe. Brussels, 26.06.2018 COM(2018) 237 final/2.

21. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, The European Economic and Social Comittee and the Comittee of the Regions. AI Continent Action Plan. COM(2025) 165 final https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/ai-continent-action-plan (accessed Sept. 26,2025).

22. Directive (EU) 2019/2161 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 November 2019 amending Council Directive 93/13/EEC and Directives 98/6/EC, 2005/29/EC and 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards the better enforcement and modernisation of Union consumer protection rules

23. Directive 2005/29/EC of the European Parlament and of the Council of 11 May 2005 concerning unfair business-to-consumer commercial practices in the internal market and amending Council Directive 84/450/EEC, Directives 97/7/EC, 98/27/EC and 2002/65/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council (‘Unfair Commercial Practices Directive’)

24. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/commission-launches-ai-innovation-package-support-artificial-intelligence-startups-and-smes (accessed Sept. 26,2025).

25. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/desi (accessed Sept. 26,2025).

26. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/HU/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52018DC0237R(01)&qid=1582188600707&from=EN (accessed Sept. 26,2025).

27. Independent High-Level Expert Group on artificial Intelligence set up by the European Commission. Ethics guidelines for trustworthy AI. Brussely, on 8 April 2019. (1), (41)-(53) https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/ethics-guidelines-trustworthy-ai (accessed Sept. 26,2025).

28. Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament end of the Council on adapting non-contractual civil liability rules to artificial intelligence (AI Liability Directive) COM/2022/496 final https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52022PC0496 (accessed Sept. 26,2025).

29. Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence and amending Regulations (EC) No 300/2008, (EU) No 167/2013, (EU) No 168/2013, (EU) 2018/858, (EU) 2018/1139 and (EU) 2019/2144 and Directives 2014/90/EU, (EU) 2016/797 and (EU) 2020/1828 (Artificial Intelligence Act) https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1689/oj/eng (accessed Sept. 26,2025).

30. Act CLV of 1997 on Consumer Protection

31. Act LVII of 1996 on the Prohibition of Unfair and Restrictive Market Practices

32. Act XLVII of 2008 on the Prohibition of Unfair Commercial Practices against Consumers

33. Artificial intelligence in the private sector: Corporate attitudes and hindering factors, HCCI Institute for Economic and Enterprise Research, https://gvi.hu/files/researches/742/nkonj_243_mesterseges-intelligencia_240808.pdf. p. 6-8. (accessed Sept. 26,2025).

34. Examination of the effects of artificial intelligence on market competition and consumers. A study prepared as a result of the Hungarian Competition Authority’s market analysis No. AL/234/2024.https://www.gvh.hu/pfile/file?path=/dontesek/agazati_vizsgalatok_piacelemzesek/piacelemzesek/mesterseges-intelligencia_piacelemzes_tanulmany_2024_10_21&inline=true.

35. https://digitalisjoletprogram.hu/files/2f/32/2f32f239878a4559b6541e46277d6e88.pdf (accessed Sept. 26,2025).

36. Hungarian AI Strategy 2025-2030. https://cdn.kormany.hu/uploads/document/c/c0/c0d/c0dfdbd37cfa520ae37361a168d244c85e7295af.pdf. (accessed Sept. 26,2025).